A. In-Vivo Engrafted Implants
¶ Over the past six decades, the range and variety of implantable medical devices, engrafted biomedical objects, and articles of manufacture operative in-vivo have been technologically advanced through many major developments in science and product engineering; and such items have most especially benefited by the emerging fields of microelectronics, biotechnology, and biocompatible materials. From the earliest published medical reports in 1952 of biophysical devices for electrical heart stimulation, to the first commercialized wireless blood pressure measurement apparatus introduced in 2010, the medical quality of patients' lives has been greatly altered and improved with implantable devices and articles such as the implantable cardiac defibrillator, the cochlear implant, the implanted bladder stimulator, and the implantable wireless pressure sensor.
Historically, many such implantable medical devices and articles have been created and developed as manufactured fabrications which can sense and measure a physiological response in-vivo or which are able to actuate physiological organs in-vivo. More recently, with the super-miniaturization of electronic circuits and mechanical structures, many physicians, surgeons, and medical researchers have focused on the development of implantable real-time vital monitoring systems, which in-vivo can and will be continuously operated in sub-second time interval periods.
Such technological advancement for and established history of implant or implant constructs generally is briefly reported and summarily documented by the following representative scientific publications: Johnson J A, FDA regulation of medical devices. Congressional research service, Jun. 25, 2012, [Internet] Washington, DC, Federation of American Scientists, c2013; Jiang G and Zhou D D., Technology advances and challenges in hermetic packaging for implantable medical devices, In: Zhou D D, Greenbaum E S, editors, Implantable neural prostheses 2: techniques and engineering approaches, Berlin, Springer, 2010. pp. 28-61; Zoll P M, Resuscitation of the heart in ventricular standstill by external electric stimulation. N Engl J Med, 1952, 247:768-771; Greatbatch W, Holmes C F. History of implantable devices, IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag. 1991,10:38-41; Magjarevic R. & Ferek-Petric B., Implantable cardiac pacemakers: 50 years from the first implantation, Zdrav Vestn. 2010, 79:55-67; Larsson B, Elmqvist H, Ryden L, Schuller H. Lessons from the first patient with an implanted pacemaker: 1958-2001, Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2003, 26(1 Pt 1):114-124; Beck H, Boden W E, Patibandla S, Kireyev D, Gutpa V, Campagna F, et al. 50th Anniversary of the first successful permanent pacemaker implantation in the United States: historical review and future directions, Am J Cardiol. 2010, 106: 810-818; Rajappan K., Permanent pacemaker implantation technique: Part II, Heart 2009, 95:334-342; Fiandra O, The first pacemaker implant in America. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1988, 11:1234-1238; Furman S. Early history of cardiac pacing and defibrillation, Indian Pacing Electrophysiol J. 2002, 2:2-3; Kileny P R, Zimmerman-Phillips S, Kemink J L, Schmaltz S P, Effects of preoperative electrical stimulability and historical factors on performance with multichannel cochlear implant, Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1991,100:563-568; Wilson B S, Dorman M F., Cochlear implants: a remarkable past and a brilliant future, Hear Res. 2008, 242:3-21; Shlegr Z, Egorov A., Implantable electric bladder stimulator used for neurogenic failures. Biomed Eng (N.Y.) 1974, 7:382-383; Majerus S J, Fletter P C, Damaser M S, Garverick S L. Low-power wireless micromanometer system for acute and chronic bladder-pressure monitoring, IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 2011, 58:763-767; Axisa F, Jourand P, Lippens E, Rymarczyk-Machal M, De Smet N, Schacht E, et al, Design and fabrication of a low cost implantable bladder pressure monitor, Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 2009: 4864-4867; Mokwa W. Medical implants based on Microsystems, Meas Sci Technol. 2007;18:R47-R57; Narasimhan S, Wang X, Bhunia S., Implantable electronics: emerging design issues and an ultralight-weight security solution, Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc, 2010:6425-6428; Bazaka K, Jacob MV., Implantable devices: issues and challenges, Electron 2013;2:1-34; Olivo J, Carrara S, De Micheli G., Energy harvesting and remote powering for implantable biosensors, IEEE Sens J., 2011, 11:1573-1586].